Perfume

Since antiquity, humans have used perfumes in oils, solids, liquids- people like to smell good. Perfume making is said to have originated in ancient Egypt. Egyptian gods are depicted with cones of perfumes wax on their heads. Priests and nobility wore similar frangranced cones, to dispel unpleasant odors. Egyptians of all social classes used perfumes on a daily basis. Lily and rose were the most highly regarded fragrances, but Egypt had a healthy trade with India, importing fragrances such as ginger and curry.

Ancient Mesopotamians used incense, burning the fragrant material at religious ceremonies. The ancient Greeks created the first liquid perfume, heavy oils mixed with fragrant powders. Perfume shops were a large part of ancient Greek society.

Perfume was important to culture in ancient Rome as well. Specific rooms in Roman bathing houses were devoted to perfume storage. Romans indulged in perfume, often reapplying them three times a day.

Hair coloring

History is full of women (and men) who expressed themselves through hair color. Artificial hair coloring dates back to the Neanderthals as a way to draw attention to the wearer.

HISTORY

Science points to natural dyes in berries and other plants for the hair dyes early Neanderthals used. Ancient Egyptians disguised gray hairs with henna, a natural plant extract with an auburn hue. As you might recall from Braveheart, Gallic warriors used plant dyes in both their hair and skin before battle, in order to strike fear into enemies. In 100 A.D., the Roman doctor Galen prescribed a recipe for black hair dye for patients complaining of grays.

Queen Elizabeth I’s flaming red hair, once considered a social stigma, was popularized during the Elizabethan period. Nobles scrambled to redden their hair with henna.

In the 1700s in France, immense, decorated powdered wigs were popular in the court. The wigs were powdered with pastel pigments, especially pink and blue.

In the Victorian age, blond hair was sought after. Hair was bleached with harsh chemicals such as lye and caustic soda. Women wore hats which were open at the top, to shield their faces from the sun and expose their hair to the bleaching sun. Silver nitrate was also popular to create a distinctive gray-haired effect. Overuse of the chemical would result in purple hair.

Hydrogen peroxide was first used as a bleach for hair in 1860. Eugene Schueller created the first commercial hair dye, which he named “Aureole”.  The product would later be called “L’oreal”.The first synthetic hair dye was marketed in 1906, a single-process coloring.  In 1932, Lawrence Gelb created the first double-process hair dye, which penetrated the hair shaft for a more permanent dye. His company was later known as “Clairol”.

Today,  a wide variety of at home hair colors are available at drugstores. Years of testing have made these products safer for both the user and their hair.

It’s still best to see a salon stylist for any major coloring. However, going one shade darker with single-process, deposit only hair color is the safest bet to keep healthy, shiny hair. Try Garnier Nutrisse, $7, drugstores.

High Heels

“I don’t know who invented high heels, but all women owe him a lot.”

-Marilyn Monroe

High heels can give anybody a boost- physically or metaphorically. They improve posture, enlongatelegs, and inject any outfit with flare and style. They look equally great with a t-shirt and jeans or a sequined dress, and the confidence boost a good pair of heels provides is well worth the occasional blister.

The History

Some of the earliest depictions of high heels are in ancient Egyptian murals dating to 3500 B.C.E. They were commonly worn by both male and female nobles. Egyptian butchers also wore heels while working to keep their feet out of the pools of blood coating the floor- picture that next time you’re lacing up a pair of wedges.

Greek actors wore wedge heels on stage to give their characters a boost, as well as to differentiate characters by height or social status. Prostitutes in Rome wore heels to advertise their business. In medieval Europe,  wood platform soles called pattens were attached to men’s and women’s shoes to keep them from touching mud.

In the 15th century, Turkey introduced a wedge called the chopine. Chopines, worn almost exclusively by women, could be anywhere from 7 to a whopping 30 inches high. Women wearing them depended on servants to help them walk in their massive, stilt-like heels. As a symbol of wealth and social standing, they remained popular in parts of Europe until the mid 17th century.

In 1553, the tiny Queen Catherine de Medici, wife of the queen of France, commisioned a cobbler to make her a pair of shoes to make her appear taller. Unlike chopines, the toe was lower than the heel. The new footwear spread across the country, and was soon regarded as an indicator of wealth and power. (That’s where we get the term “well-heeled” meaning wealthy.) Men as well as women wore heels. King Louis XIV regularly wore heels over 5 in. to boost his 5’4″ frame.

High heels fell out of favor during the French Revolution, after which nobles attempted to hide all signs of their former decadence. Likewise, heels were mostly banned in the colonies. The Massachusetts Colony prosecuted women who wore heels as witches in the early 18th century.

The invention of the sewing machine in the late 1800s made it possible to manufacture a greater variety of heels, but they truly reemerged into popularity in the 1920s. When hemlines soared in the 1920s and the aestetic ideal called for a long, lean silhouette, heels got taller and thinner. In the Depression in the 1930s and World War II in the 1940s, times called for heels which were lower and sturdier. However, embellished and glittery heels appeared in Hollywood films, notably Dorothy’s ruby “slippers” in The Wizard of Oz (1939), which were actually heels.

Higher heels became fashionable in the 1950s, as a more feminine, ladylike appearance came into vogue. Christian Dior invented the stiletto in the 1950s, with a very narrow heel.  High heeled boots became fashionable in the 1960s, corresponding with the Mod movement. Called “go-go boots”, they were often paired with miniskirts and short dresses.

Cork wedges gained popularity in the 1970s. Some feminist groups opposed high heels, claiming that they sexualized women and crippled their movement. However, in the 1980s, the concept of “power heels” as a mark of professionalism and power changed conceptions about heels.

Today, heels continue to be a symbol of empowerment and beauty. Dr. Scholls’ inserts for high heels have made wearing them for an extended period of time much easier.

Big for fall is a high heeled bootie. They come both closed and open toe, and look great with skinny jeans or a skirt with tights.

Nail Polish

Nails

Nail polish is one of the first cosmetics most women wear today.  While most females don’t start wearing face or eye makeup until their teen years, it’s not uncommon to see little girls wearing nail polish on their finger or toe nails.  Today, nail polish comes in a spectrum of colors and finishes, from baby pink to iridescent blue.  Nail polish is a component of a regular manicure, and helps finish a look by adding a bit of gloss and decoration to hands.

The History

Nail polish has been used since 3200 B.C. Unlike today, different polish colors denoted different social classes in ancient Babylonia and Egypt. Babylonian men wore nail polish made of kohl. Higher class men wore black, while lower classes usually wore green. The ancient Chinese used a mixture of egg whites, beeswax, Arabic gum and flower petals to create a colored mixture which they would soak their fingers in for hours.  Typically, only upper classes could afford hours to spend on this procedure.  The pigments chosen were usually the crest colors of the ruling dynasty.

Ancient Egyptian women of all social classes stained their nails with henna.  Colors distinguished classes like the Babylonians. Lower classes wore pale shades on their nails and nobles wore shades of red. Cleopatra’s favorite shade was said to be blood red, and Nefertiti is rumored to have preferred ruby.

Nail coloring generally fell into disfavor throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance. In the Victorian era, women of class manicured their fingers and tinted the nails with red oils. In 1920, French makeup artist Michelle Menard created a lacquer similar to high-gloss paint on cars. Her product became extremely popular with flappers. A popular manicure style at the time was “The Moon Manicure”, which left the tips unpainted.

Menard’s company perfected her formula. The company eventually evolved into cosmetics giant Revlon. Throughout the Great Depression, Revlon sold only nail enamel. (They expanded their line of cosmetics at the start of WWII).  The original first lady to wear nail polish colors in public was Eleanor Roosevelt.

Glossy nails became popularized in America in the 1940s when Hollywood starlets such as actress Rita Hayworth were pictured wearing red tips onscreen.  In 1976, the French manicure appeared on runways. It was a success because of its versatility.

Throughout the 1980s and 90s, edgier colors such as black and dark green debuted. They became popular with the punk rock and grunge music scenes, and both men and women wore dark shades. Uma Thurman popularized black nail polish with the mainstream in 1994’s Pulp Fiction. Sales of Chanel’s Rouge Noir, which she wore in the film, increased dramatically.

Today, a variety of new finishes and trends have hit nail polish shelves. Magnetic nail polish and crackle coats have enjoyed months in vogue.

The trend for this winter combines the accent nail trend, where one nail is painted a different color, and the nail decal fad. Pick a base shade and an accent shade. (red and gold look luxe for the holiday season. )Paint each nail with the base shade and wait for it to try. Then, accent each nail differently- try a decal on one, vertical and horizontal stripes, or only gild the tips.

 

Swimwear

No article of clothing has a past quite as splashy or as scandalous as the swimsuit. As styles and shapes have changed throughout history, so have ideas about appropriate dress and attitudes towards the water. Bathing suits through the years act as a cultural thermometer.

This is only a brief dip into the history of the swimsuit.

HISTORY

Although the idea of babes frolicking in bikinis may seem like a relatively new innovation, the ancient Greeks actually wore skimpy two-pieces similar to the swimwear of today. Murals in Greece dating from 300 B.C. depict women wearing bandeau-like tops and bottoms that cover only the necessary parts.

While the ancient Greek swimsuits covered part of the body, the ancient Romans (men and women) bathed naked in communal bath houses.

Spas resurfaced in Europe several hundred years later. Men and women were separated, but women (concerned about male onlookers) wore bathing dresses with weights sewn into the hem to prevent skirts from billowing up in the water. Sometimes dark stockings were worn underneath.

Swimming at the seaside became a popular activity during the mid 1800s. However, to protect their Victorian modesty, bathing machines (dressing rooms on wheels, drawn by horses) were lowered into the water with women in bathing costumes inside, so that the women could submerge themselves with as few onlookers as possible. These bathing costumes were fairly similar to the all-encompassing dresses worn everyday, although the wool clung to the wearer’s body when wet.

In the late 19^th and early 20^th century, mixed bathing became acceptable on most beaches. However, Annette Kellerman was arrested in 1907 when she strolled a Boston beach in a fitted one piece which revealed her arms and legs. She started a trend however. In 1916, Madison Square Garden held a “bathing suit day”, and beauty pageants began including a bathing suit portion to their lineup.

In 1921, the first elastic one-piece suit was sold by Janzten Knitting Mill. The suit, worn by both men and women, covered the wearer from the neck to the knees. Over the years, the bathing attire would become smaller and smaller.

In the mid-1930s, companies began manufacturing swimsuits out of Lastex, a woven satin material primarily used for girdles and undergarments. Starlets such as Joan Crawford and Jean Harlow popularized the look.

Designer Louis Reard created a look so shocking in 1946 that he was forced to employ exotic dancers to model it- the bikini. Banned on certain beaches in Spain and Italy, the bikini made waves in the United States.

One-piece swimsuits that were constructed like corsets were popular throughout the 1950s.In 1956, screen siren Bridgette Bardot popularized the bikini, making it a common sight on American beaches. Brian Hyland’s 1960s hit “Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini” cemented the swimsuit’s iconic status.

In 1974, designer Rudi Gernreich introduced a thong bikini, which offered minimal coverage,

The 1990s introduced a range of bikini tops that included inflatable pads to accentuate the wearer’s figure.

Although swimsuit season is still far away, it’s not too early to begin planning.  A monokini with cutouts creates an hourglass shape flattering for all figures. If you’re feeling daring, go for rhinestone or metallic accents.

Mascara

Mascara to eyes is what lipstick is to lips- it enhances, enlarges, and accents them.  A coat of mascara accents all eye colors and brings focus to the eyes.

Ancient Egyptians are recorded usnig kohl to darken eyelashes as far back as 4000 B.C.E. Kohl continued tobe popular through the Babylonian,  Greek, and Roman empires.

Eye makeup was not considered socially acceptable throughout Western culture until the Victorian era. Victorian women, focused on creating long, dark lashes, concocted a mascara-like mixture of elderberry juice and ashes, and applied hot to the eyelashes.  In the 19th century, a chemist named Eugene Rimmel created the first commercial mascara called petroleum jelly. His name would later become the name of a large cosmetics company.

Around the same time, a similar product was created by T.L. Williams in the U.S. in 1917. Williams created the product for his sister Maybel, and went on to create a distributing company called Maybelline.  These early mascaras, consisting of petroleum jelly and coal, were unbelievably messy.

In 1957, makeup pioneer Helena Rubenstein created a mascara product which consisted of a cream squeezed onto a brush and applied to lashes. It was less messy than the petroleum products of the time.  Eventually, a brush was designed to come inside tubes and apply mascara to lashes.

Scientists have linked the popularity of mascara with women to the creation of a youthful appearance, namely by creating the appearance of having larger eyes. Large eyes have nearly univerally been considered aestetically desirable throughout history.

To create a wide eyed look, try L’oreal Voluminous Lash mascara in Black, $8. Apply two coats with a zig-zag motion through top lashes, pulling lashes up and out towards cheekbones. For added oomph, aipply L’oreal Infinite Wear Eyeshadow in Iced Latte, $8, to corners of eyes.

Lipstick

• Like accent paint on a sportscar, lipstick is the finishing touch which polishes a look and pulls it all together. Choosing the right lipstick can punch up your entire appesrance, waking you up andmaking you appear alive, even if you’re coming off an all-nighter.

The History

Lipstick is no new invention. Women throughout history used pigments and dyes to accent their lips and make them stand out. Scientists have conducted studies which show that men often equate red or pink lips with health and fertility, making rosy lips indicators of a healthy mate. Ancient Mesopotamian women crushed gemstones and applied the powder to their lips. Ancient Egyptian women favored a concoction made of fucus-algin, iodine, and bromine mannite, which often caused illness. A recipe for Queen Cleopatra’s lipstick called for crushed cochinal insects, which resulted in a dark red dye.  A pearlescent material found in fish scales gave early lipsticks a shimmer effect.

Cosmetics of all kinds were shunned in Europe throughout most of the Middle Ages for religious reasons, however, Queen Elizabeth I popularized red lipstick during her reign in the 16th century, usually in contrast to a whote powdered face. Lipsticks at this time were formulated from beeswax and red plant dye.

Lipstick was still considered uncouth throughout most of the 1800s in Britain, worn only by actors and actresses. Lead was a common ingredient of lipstcks sold at the time, making them dangerous to the health of the wearer. Lipsticks were traditionally made at home, until Guerlain, a French company, was the first company to manufacture commercially sold lipstick in 1884. Guerlain wrapped a mixture of deer tallow, beeswax and castor oil in silk paper and marketed it as lipstick. By 1921, use of cosmetics including lipstick was considered acceptable and fashionable in Britain.

The Sears Roebuck catalogue first sold lipstick in the 1890s. By 1912, it was considered acceptable for all American women to wear lipstick in public.  The first swivel tube (like the lipsticks of today) was introduced in 1923. Dark red lipstick enjoyed popularity among the flapper set, although the dyes in lipstick at the time were so staining that it was joked “Kissing was going out of style”, as the lipstick stained mouths and clothing.  Most tubes of the time were made of metal. During World War II, metal was rationed as well as petroleum and castor oil, the main ingredients of lipstick. After the war, popularity of lipstick exploded as women strove for a lady-like, feminine look. Throughout most of the 1950s, lipstick was considered the only exceptable color cosmetic for classy women.

In the 1960s, girl groups such as the Ronnettes popularized white lipstick, as well as shiny and sheer shades. Cosmetic companies in the 1970s experimented with a variety of unconventional lipstick shades, including shimmery blue, lime, and navy. “Mood lipsticks” enjoyed a period of popularity in the 1980s. They were marketed as being able to react to a wearer’s mood by changing color in reaction to changes in the wearer’s temperature and pH balance.

In the 1990s, shades of brown lipstick were popular, often referred to as “cherry chocolate”. Recently, lip glosses and stains have taken the placeof tradtional lipsticks. Stains and glosses are easier to apply, last longer, and don’t smear.

For fall, channel your inner siren with traditonal red lips. Apply a tinted balm stick, such as L’oreal’s Color Riche Balm in Candy Apple, $8. This shade works on all skin tones, and is sheer enough for even the most sheepish lipstick wearers.

Blue jeans

“I have often said that I wish I invented blue jeans: the most spectacular, the most practical, the most relaxed and nonchalant. They have expression, modesty, sex appeal, simplicity- all I hope for in my clothes.”

-Yves St. Laurent

Denim is the concrete of a well-stocked closet- cheap, versatile, and keeps everything together. A good pair of jeans can be worn with anything, from chic blazers to old T-shirts. A bad pair might get you directed to a local PTA meeting.

These days, denim comes in a rainbow of washes and finishes, as well as different variants of stretches and fits. There’s a style for every body type (as well as some that don’t belong on any body type). Jeans are appropriate for nearly every occasion, with the exception of meeting the pope, according to my mother.

THE STORY

As far as style, social status and fit is concerned, jeans have come a long way. The word “denim” is thought to have come from the French city Nimes, where the cotton twill fabric was first produced, literally the fabric was called “de Nimes”.

The United States was introduced to the fabric which would eventually create the national pants in 1873, when tailor Jacob Davis and fabric distributor Levi Strauss filed a patent for copper riveted pocket fasteners. Strauss, who had been selling cotton duck pants to miners, found denim a more durable and comfortable fabric and began using it in his pants. A pair of blue jeans cost $1.50 in 1885.

Jeans first appeared onscreen in Westerns in the 1930s. They were often the clothing of choice for Hollywood cowboys. Jeans provided reliable (if not stylish) workwear for factory workers during World War II. Women’s jeans zipped down the side in the 1940s, while men’s zipped down the front. The fit was far from flattering- ads from the 1940s and earlier advertised blue jeans as “waist overalls”. They fit straight and loose from the thigh, encompassing the wearer’s legs in a tent of blue fabric.

Actor James Dean wore blue jeans in his 1955 film Rebel Without a Cause, making them an icon of teenage rebellion along with leather jackets and motorcycles. They were popular with teenagers at the time, with styles for guys and girls pegged at the ankles (to show off those awesome saddle shoes). In the Wonderbread world of the 1950s, jeans were designated dangerous pants- they were banned in some restaurants, theaters and schools.

Regulations on jeans loosened up (along with everything else) in the 1960s. Jeans were popular among the college and university set. Towards the end of the 1960s, flared pants became popular, and the leg width continued to blossom into the 1970s, when hip kids wore bell bottoms and often embellished them with patches or designs. Farrah Fawcett, the feather-haired siren from “Charlie’s Angels” wore them in the 1976 film, making denim a sex symbol.

In the 1980s, famous designers launched models swathed in blue jeans stamped with their brand down runways, launching a “designer jeans” trend which fit in perfectly with the decadance of the 80s. Different colors and washes made an appearance, including super bleached denim and the 80s icon, acid wash. Jeans were tight and high waisted, and impossible to remove without a crowbar. The 90s brought a pants revolution. In hopes of distancing themselves from their blue-jean clad parents, young people in the 90s favored other fabrics over denim. Twill, courdoroy, khaki, and athletic pants enjoyed a surge in popularity.  Eleven Levi Strauss factories closed in this decade.

The early 2000s saw a resurgence in the popularity of denim. Drawing from the hig-hugging, bell bottomed style of the 70s, low rise flared jeans became the jeans of the moment. Torn, shredded, and destroyed denim had its time in style, as youth-oriented clothing retailers such as Abercrombie and Fitch showcased $80 with the knees ripped out.  Spandex/cotton blends and Lycra began cropping up on denim labels. These new blends made for a more comfortable jean with some stretch, and allowed jeans to get tighter without sacrificing breathing. Designers gradually made the waistlines on their pants lower and lower, sometimes making undergarments visible. This trend was ubiquitous in both women’s and men’s fashions- some cities even passed ordinances to “pick your pants up or wear a belt”. Skinny jeans have come back into vogue in the last few years, at first as a nod to 80s fashion. The skinny jeans of this decade are most often low waisted, cotton/spandex blend, and dark washed. Jeggings, a combination of jeans and leggings, have also risen to popularity, although they are harder to pull off with grace than traditional jeans.

Recently, there’s been a huge trend in colored and patterned denim. Though this trend may look difficult to pull off, there’s a different style for every body and shape.

Petite- Try a snakeskin print in a skinny jean. The vertical pattern will enlongate your leg with or without heels, making you look absolutely ssssssssstunning.

Curvy-Burgundy and bright blue are hot for this season. Go for a cotton/spandex straight leg to accentuate your curves.

Athletic-Toned legs can make the jeggings trend work. Go for a bright shade for extra oomph- magenta and mint are great for fall. Keep your top a basic neutral, though. Going overboard on color will make you look like a refugee from a Crayola factory.

Tall- You can pull off nearly anything on that model-esque frame. Try a floral print in blush, which looks fantastic with white t-shirt and denim jacket.

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